Irving Fisher and red guards
Steven Cheung
The hypothesis to be advanced here is that the recent activities of the red guards in china stem，at least in part，from their use of a refined concept of capital。And it is my conjecture that，had fisher’s theory of interest been translated into Chinese thirty years ago。Mao probably would have sought to solve the "social contradiction"，or the people’s conflict differently。
本文将提出一个假说，即中国红卫兵近期的活动源于，或部分源于他们对“资本”这一被精确定义了的概念的应用。并且，我猜测，倘若FISHER的《利息理论》早在30年前翻译成中文，毛很可能就会以另一种不同的方式，来寻求解决“社会矛盾”，或人民冲突的问题。
I
The “social contradiction，” which Mao states in vague terms，can be more precisely expressed by the economist。In a world where more than one individual wants the same scarce resources， competition is implied。Hence，there arises among competing individuals the conflict of who gets how much of what，and it is essential to establish some rules for competition known as property rights。 On this Mao and the economist agree。
1。---------------------------------------------------------------------- 被毛含糊不清地描述的所谓“社会矛盾”这一概念，可被经济学家更准确地表达。一句话，倘若不止一人欲得某项稀缺资源，则竞争乃其必然之意。因之，竞争的人们会为了“谁人得到多少的某物”而发生冲突，则建立竞争之规则实属必要（这些竞争规则我们称其为产权）。在这一点上，毛和我们的经济学家是一致同意的。
But the economist postulates， among other things，that the individual behaves so as to maximize wealth or utility subject to the property right constraint。Given the constrained maximization，economic theory derives different implications for income distribution and resource allocation from different systems of property rights。If we ignore problems of transaction cost，the constraint of private property rights leads to a set of equilibrium conditions which define economic efficiency。The attributes of private property are exclusive and transferable resource rights。Hence the market， which gives and takes away，is one criterion for solving the people’s conflict。
但是除了别的理论技巧，经济学家假设：个人行为会在产权约束下最大化财富或效用。考虑约束条件下的最大化假设，经济理论由不同的产权约束系统推导出收入分配和资源配置的不同理论意蕴。如果我们忽略交易费用所带来的问题，私有的产权约束会导致一组均衡的条件，这些均衡条件定义了经济效率。私有产权是指对资源的排他性和可转移性的权利。因此市场，人们平等交换之关系，是一个解决人们因稀缺资源产生冲突问题的标准。
Consider the following：(1)postulates on individual behavior (preference functions)，(2)private ownership of resources(one specific opportunity set)，and (3)efficient resource allocation(some implied outputs given the objects of choice)。Basically，Mao wants(3)。Influenced by Marx’s labor theory of value， however，Mao sees the people’s conflict in (2)。In doing away with (2)，he disagrees with the economist on (1)，in the belief that dialectical materialism will bail him out。
我们来考虑以下几点：（1）关于个人行为的假设（即偏好函数），（2）资源的私人所有权（即一个特定的机会集合）（3）有效率的资源配置（即一些理论意蕴--给定可选择事项下的理论意蕴）。基本上，毛想实现（3）的效果。然而，他受到MARX劳动的价值理论所影响，关注于（2）带来人们的冲突。在废除（2）的过程中，毛与我们的经济学家在（1）上意见相左，以为辩证唯物主义将保其永不犯错。
This note，written with only casual information on present-day China，was intended for the curiosity of Tsou。Its failure to provoke laughter suggests that it should be made available to a wider audience。
II
Professor Tang Tsou has pointed out to me that Mao and the Marx-Lenin camp differ on the ending of the "social contradiction。" Whereas Marx and Lenin saw an end to the "contradiction" in a communist state，Mao does not。Mao’s logic is quite correct。What he sees，in the economist’s terminology，is an unending series of unstable equilibria。
2。---------------------------------------------------------------------
TANG TSOU教授已经向我指出毛与MARX-LENIN阵营在“社会矛盾”的结局上意见相左。MARX和LENIN认为“社会矛盾”将在共产主义国家完结，与此相反，毛不以为然。毛的想法很正确。毛所认为的，以经济学术语来说，是：所谓共产主义将是一系列无穷的非稳定均衡点序列。
If private ownership of capital assets is abolished，individual behavior must accordingly be changed in order to maintain a socially desirable output。However，while Mao considers that self-interest is subject to alterations and that the people can be molded as desired，he gives little or no inkling as to what specific behavior he desires of his people。To say that "thou shalt not be selfish" does not，of course，imply what "thou shalt be。"It is indeed difficult， if not impossible，to specify a class of behavior consistent with both communal ownership of resources and a desirable output-even if we grant that behavior can be molded as intended。
如果资本品的私人所有制度被废除，（自利的）个人行为将会因此而改变，以使得满足社会大众需求的合意产出得到保证。然而，毛认为自利之心受制于无常，并认为人心可为其所欲而另塑其形，他却很少或压根没透露出他想要他的人民的行为变成如何如何。说“你不应自私”显然不能推出“你应该如何如何”。要想划分出一类行为，使其与公有产权的资源和合意的产出相一致，倘若并非不可能，亦委实困难----就算我们承认“人心可为其所欲而另塑其形”亦然。
There is one alternative left：to specify the goal of output and to make whatever correction of human behavior is needed to satisfy that goal。Under this approach，changes in policy to "correct" behavior will be more extensive (a)the more thorough the adoption of communal ownership over resources，(b)the fewer the alterations of human nature that can be effectively induced， and (c) the more the changes in goals。And the people’s conflict continues。
不过仍然有一个方法可选择：指定社会产出的目标，并尽其所能修正人们的行为以达到这一目标。在这一方法下，用以“修正”人们的行为的政策的变更会有更广泛的余地：（a）更彻底地采用资源的公有制度；（b）更少可被有效激励的人性的变化；（c）更频繁地变更目标。然而人们的冲突仍然持续上演着。
That，perhaps，is why changes in rules，programs，and policy measures in Communist China have occurred at unprecedented speed under the direction of a very powerful man。
这或许正是为什么在一个有着非凡强权的领导人的共产中国，律法、计划、政策的变更正以一种空前的速度发生的原因所在。
III
During the establishment of the people’s communes-which was a greater "leap forward" than ever before toward abolishing private asset holdings (that is，in land and other farming assets)-"contradiction" mounted。 People were found to be selfish and greedy；commune reports on output were outright lies；and retrogression to individualistic decisions progressed without government approval。Consequently，the next change in policy was distilled from the army，a seemingly independent organization that functions without private capital。
3。------------------------------------------------------------------------
在人民公社建立期间---相较于以往向废除私人所有制度（即对土地和其他农用资产）的“前进”过程， 这乃是一个更大的“跃进”---“社会矛盾”有所增长。人们表现出自私与贪婪；公社的产出报告全是谎言；社会倒退到没有政府批准的个人主义的决策过程。结果，下一项的政策变更则取自军队，一个表面上看是与私人资本的功能发挥毫无关系的独立过程。
The outcome was the Ret Guard。
其结果就是红卫兵的出现。
IV
Capital assets，according to Fisher，are all goods with future income potential，be they land，building，craft animals，or human beings。The value of the asset is derived，with marketable rights，by capitalizing the income stream it generates。The existence of a market value for an asset implies that it is privately owned。Even if right transfers in any form are excluded， the capital assets may still be privately held，generating incomes for the individual。
4。------------------------------------------------------------------------
在FISHER看来，作为资本的资产乃是具有带来未来收入能力的物品，比如土地、建筑物、驯养的动物或人类自身。资产（有其可售卖的权利的资产），其价值源自对其未来收入流的折算值。对资产而言，市价的存在意味着它为私人所占有。就算产权的任何形式的转让被禁止，作为资本的资产仍然可以为私人占有，为其带来收入。
In the process of abolishing private property, therefore, prohibitions of exclusivity in use are likely to be preceded by prohibitions of right transfers.
因此，在废除私有产权的过程中，对排他性的禁止实际上很可能是先通过对权利的可转让性的禁止来进行的。
V
The two ecnonmists who dominate economic thinking of China’s political leaders，as I discovered from several volumes published in Peking in the 1950’s，are Ricardo and Marx，Ricardo’s doctrine of differential rent(with its implied "injustice")and Marx’s labor theory of value(and surplus value) are emphasized。
5。-----------------------------------------------------------------------
以我在北京于1950年代发布的若干文件中的发现来看，占据中国政治领袖经济思维的两大经济学家乃是RICARDO和MARX。RICARDO的差异地租学说（及其“不公平”的推论）和MARX的劳动价值理论（及其剩余价值）被着重看待。
While the labor theory of value fooled Marx and China’s political leaders，it certainly does not fool the red guards。Under Mao’s insistence on doing away with income differentials of private capital，and doing away with them thoroughly，the red guards have performed accordingly。 Their behavior indicates that they，like Fisher，interpret capital as all-inclusive，which is a natural generalization of Mao’s "thoroughness。"And they apply the notion of differential rent to virtually everything。Class differentials are viewed as rent differentials。Thus from skilled ping-pong players to educated medical doctors，and for that matter to all those who command more comfortable livings(that is，higher incomes) than they，the red guards see good reasons to extract rent。
当劳动价值理论愚弄MARX和中国的政治领袖的时候，它并没能愚弄得了红卫兵们。毛坚持废除，并坚持彻底废除私有资产的收入差异，而红卫兵依其指示而行。象FISHER用理论解释资本无所不包，红卫兵的行为表明，他们也解释了资本无所不包，这一解释过程不过是毛的“彻底”思想自然地一般化过程。并且他们将差异地租的理念应用于几乎每一事物。阶级的差异被视为租的差异。因此，从老资历的乒乓运动员到高学历的医生，并且由于上述事因，对所有敢于诉求比红卫兵更舒适的生活（就是更高收入）的人们，红卫兵看到了榨取租的好理由。
Odd as it may seem，what they do is in accordance with a sophisticated concept of capital。
虽然表面上看来怪诞，他们所为皆根据一个在学理上成熟了的概念---资本。
VI
But the activities of the red guards will not endure。Differential rent will come into its own。For when one red guard sees someone above him，it will not be long before he also sees someone below him。
6。-----------------------------------------------------------------------
然而红卫兵的行为不会长久。差异地租将盛行起来。因为当某一红卫兵发现某人收入在他之上，他也将不难发现某人收入在他之下了。
Thoroughly interpreted and strictly enforced，the elimination of class differentials implies the survival of one single man。
如果要彻底地表述和严格地强求，消除阶级差异意味着只有一人存活下来了。
VII
The people’s conflict which Mao sees in a Communist state is a real conflict。What is not real is the conflict he sees in private property：everything comes from labor。and conflict arises if non-labor assets are privately owned。His thesis of unequal income distribution is only a by-product of a logical error，and error which stems from Marx’s incomplete concept of "capital。"
7。-------------------------------------------------------------------------
毛在一个共产国家中所看到的人民冲突是一场真正的冲突。如果说有什么不能说是真正的，那就是他在私有产权的斗争中所闻的这一信条：一切价值源于劳动，并且冲突源于私有。他的不平均的收入分配的论题不过是一个逻辑错误的副产品。这个逻辑错误来源于MARX对资本理论的一知半解。
Mao is more thorough than Marx，and，by coincidence，the little red guards interpret Mao as Fisher。
但毛比MARX要彻底，并且巧合的是小小红卫兵用行动“实践”了毛的指示，却印证了FISHER的理论。
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