【latex版】水贴

A large literature demonstrates the direct and indirect influence of health on socioeconomic attainment, and reveals the ways in which health and socioeconomic background simultaneously and dynamically affect opportunities for attainment and mobility. Despite an increasing understanding of the effects of health on social processes, research to date remains limited in its conceptualization and measurement of the temporal dimensions of health, especially in the presence of socioeconomic circumstances that covary with health over time. Guided by life course theory, we use data from the British National Child Development Study, an ongoing panel study of a cohort born in 1958, to examine the association between lifetime health trajectories and socioeconomic attainment in middle age. We apply finite mixture modeling to identify distinct trajectories of health that simultaneously account for timing, duration and stability. Moreover, we employ propensity score weighting models to account for the presence of time-varying socioeconomic factors in estimating the impact of health trajectories. We find that, when poor health is limited to the childhood years, the disadvantage in socioeconomic attainment relative to being continuously healthy is either insignificant or largely explained by time-varying socioeconomic confounders. The socioeconomic impact of continuously deteriorating health over the life course is more persistent, however. Our results suggest that accounting for the timing, duration and stability of poor health throughout both childhood and adulthood is important for understanding how health works to produce social stratification. In addition, the findings highlight the importance of distinguishing between confounding and mediating effects of time-varying socioeconomic circumstances.

1. Introduction
A growing body of sociological research reveals a strong association between early life adversity and life course patterns of inequality (Guo, 1998, Torche, 2011 and Warren et al., 2012). Childhood is a key period for understanding the relationship between socioeconomic disadvantage and its persistent effects over the life course, and substantial evidence demonstrates the effects of socioeconomic disadvantage on socioeconomic processes and health over the life course (Mackenbach et al., 2008, Smith, 2003 and Wagmiller et al., 2006). As a form of childhood adversity that is closely intertwined with both biological and social processes, recent evidence points to the role of poor health during childhood in generating social and economic inequality within and across generations (Palloni, 2006). Health is a marker of population welfare that is unequally distributed at the time of birth, remains unequally distributed with age, and has important implications for social and economic patterns observed over the life course. Evidence that health plays a role in determining social position suggests a process of “health selection” into social and economic roles. Socioeconomic background and health work simultaneously and dynamically to affect socioeconomic attainment, to the extent that socioeconomic background is a determinant of both health and socioeconomic attainment (Adler et al., 1994, Smith, 2003, Finch, 2003 and Wagmiller et al., 2006), and health at different ages has both direct and indirect effects on opportunities for socioeconomic attainment and mobility. Health selection, therefore, results from and contributes to socioeconomic disadvantage.

A wide spectrum of quantitative systems approaches such as life cycle assessment or integrated assessment models are available to assess sustainable development strategies. These methods describe certain aspects of the biophysical basis of society, which comprises in-use stocks and the processes and flows that maintain and operate these stocks. Despite this commonality, the methods are often developed and applied in isolation, which dampens scientific progress and complicates communication between scientists and decision makers. As research on socioecological systems matures, more structure and classification are needed. We argue that the concept of socioeconomic metabolism (SEM), which was developed in material flow analysis and material flow accounting, is a powerful boundary object that can serve as paradigm for studying the biophysical basis of human society. A common paradigm can facilitate model combination and integration, which can lead to more robust and comprehensive interdisciplinary assessments of sustainable development strategies. We refine the notion of SEM, clarify the relation between SEM and the economy, and provide a list of features that we believe qualifies SEM as research paradigm. We argue that SEM as paradigm can help to justify alternative economic concepts, suggest analogies that make the concept more accessible, and discuss its limitations.

On the use of structural equation models for marketing modeling

We reflect on the role of structural equation modeling (SEM) in marketing modeling and managerial decision making. We discuss some benefits provided by SEM and alert marketing modelers to several recent developments in SEM in three areas: measurement analysis, analysis of cross-sectional data, and analysis of longitudinal data.

Objectives: To investigate the determinants of self rated health (SRH) in men and women in the British Whitehall II study and the French Gazel cohort study.

Background Raising duty on alcohol across the board can reduce morbidity, mortality and other adverse consequences of alcohol use. However, effectiveness is less certain for measures that target specific types of alcohol beverage in isolation. One example from Australia was the increase in tax on alcopops favoured by young people to curb risky drinking in this demographic.

Methods We measured alcohol-related health harms in 15–29-year-olds presenting to emergency departments (EDs) in Queensland following the tax increase. These presentations were compared with following ED controls: (1) 15–29-year-olds with asthma or appendicitis; and (2) 30–49-year-olds presenting with alcohol-related harms. We analysed data over a 5-year period (April 2005–April 2010) using a time series analysis. This covered 3 years before, and 2 years after, the tax increase. We investigated both mental and behavioural consequences (F10 codes), and intentional/unintentional injuries (S and T codes).

Results We fitted an ARIMA (autoregressive integrated moving average) model to test for a change following the increased ‘alcopops’ tax in April 2008. There was no significant decrease in alcohol-related ED presentations in 15–29-year-olds compared to any of the controls. We found similar results for males and females, narrow and broad definitions of alcohol-related harms, under-19s and ED presentations at night-time and weekends.

Methods We measured alcohol-related health harms in 15–29-year-olds presenting to emergency departments (EDs) in Queensland following the tax increase. These presentations were compared with following ED controls: (1) 15–29-year-olds with asthma or appendicitis; and (2) 30–49-year-olds presenting with alcohol-related harms. We analysed data over a 5-year period (April 2005–April 2010) using a time series analysis. This covered 3 years before, and 2 years after, the tax increase. We investigated both mental and behavioural consequences (F10 codes), and intentional/unintentional injuries (S and T codes).