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Knowledge spillover studies have therefore proved valuable in highlighting that the knowledge spillovers process remains localised and that this holds true, at least initially, for codified knowledge. What such studies do not provide are insights into the process of knowledge transfer and sharing which remains a ‘black box’ in terms of our conceptual understanding. Above all, tacit knowledge, although acknowledged, remains unexplored. The notion that tacit knowledge is all about individuals and that charting the movement of individuals within organisations indicates something about tacit knowledge transfer, as some knowledge spillover studies have done, is valid, but still goes little way towards uncovering the specifics—‘what, when and how’—of such transfers.This is not to suggest that research into studying the spatial transfer of knowledge will be easy. In many cases, surrogate indicators will have to be used. However, at present, most work depends on oft-repeated assumptions of what is supposed to happen under mainly normative conditions.
Two further issues need highlighting in any discussion of knowledge and geography: one that has already been discussed; one that has not. The first relates to the demand for, and consumption of, knowledge and how geography shapes this process. Analysis so far has concentrated on supply-side issues and the transfer process; very little is known about the way knowledge is demanded and the consumption process and the take-up of knowledge. The second issue is the power dimension, which is strangely ignored in studies of knowledge.12 As with all relationships, the process of transferring and utilizing knowledge is shaped by issues of asymmetries in power, both in relation to socially bonded knowledge (Harvey, 1999) and in terms of interfirm and interorganizational knowledge relationships.This omission needs to be rectified if we are fully to under stand the process of knowledge formulation and exchange.
Lastly, we should be careful about the particularities of geography. Virtually all the empirical studies of knowledge spillovers have explored the US context which will be, not unexpectedly, influenced by the ‘national systems of cities’ (Thompson, 1972; and the resultant information flows: Pred, 1972) and regions in North America and the nature and pattern of infrastructure in place there (Kellerman,1984). There will undoubtedly be differences—some major, some subtle—in how knowledge is transferred in other countries and these need to be explored.
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