traditionally placed on the prospect for external support when rating big banks.
2 While some have called for the break-up of large firms as the solution, the internationally agreed approach is to treat the systemically important financial institutions more stringently in terms of required capital and in terms of more intensive supervision. Again, the logic underlying this area of reform is that of internalising better the social costs that distress at the biggest, the most connected and the most irreplaceable firms can impose. Furthermore, as a backstop to stronger capital requirements, regulators and legislators have worked to make resolution regimes a credible, ex ante alternative to official support for big firms.
• Reinforcing infrastructures. Another key area of reform is to make derivatives markets safer by moving the trading of standardised over-the-counter derivative contracts to exchanges or electronic trading platforms, and their clearing through central counterparties. Progress towards this goal has been slower than hoped and varies across jurisdictions, but much progress can be anticipated this year. Here in the United States, activity in interest rate swaps has migrated to a substantial extent. Contracts that are not centrally cleared have been made subject to higher capital requirements. Thorny questions on the cross-border interaction of different national rules are being worked through.
• Dealing with risks in the shadow banking system. Globally, the value of financial assets outside banks, insurers, pension funds and central banks rose by about 7% in 2013 over the previous year, to a total of $75 trillion. This is almost back to the pre-crisis level as a share of GDP. Not all
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