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The craft of reseach.pdf
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目录
Contents -14
Preface: The Aims of This Edition -8
Our Debts -4
I RESEARCH, RESEARCHERS, AND READERS 1
PROLOGUE: BECOMING A RESEARCHER 3
1 Thinking in Print: The Uses of Research, Public and Private 9
1.1 What Is Research? 10
1.2 Why Write It Up? 11
1.3 Why a Formal Report? 13
1.4 Writing Is Thinking 14
2 Connecting with Your Reader: (Re-)Creating Yourself and Your Readers 16
2.1 Creating Roles for Yourself and Your Readers 16
2.2 Understanding Your Role 18
2.3 Imagining Your Reader’s Role 20
? Quick Tip: A Checklist for Understanding Your Readers 26
II ASKING QUESTIONS, FINDING ANSWERS 29
PROLOGUE: PLANNING YOUR PROJECT—AN OVERVIEW 31
? Quick Tip: Creating a Writing Group 34
3 From Topics to Questions 35
3.1 From an Interest to a Topic 36
3.2 From a Broad Topic to a Focused One 39
3.3 From a Focused Topic to Questions 40
3.4 From a Question to Its Significance 45
? Quick Tip: Finding Topics 49
4 From Questions to a Problem 51
4.1 Distinguishing Practical and Research Problems 52
4.2 Understanding the Common Structure of Problems 54
4.3 Finding a Good Research Problem 62
4.4 Learning to Work with Problems 64
? Quick Tip: Manage the Unavoidable Problem of Inexperience 66
5 From Problems to Sources 68
5.1 Knowing How to Use Three Kinds of Sources 68
5.2 Locating Sources through a Library 70
5.3 Locating Sources on the Internet 75
5.4 Evaluating Sources for Relevance and Reliability 76
5.5 Following Bibliographical Trails 80
5.6 Looking beyond Predictable Sources 81
5.7 Using People as Primary Sources 81
? Quick Tip: The Ethics of Using People as Sources of Data 83
6 Engaging Sources 84
6.1 Knowing What Kind of Evidence to Look For 85
6.2 Record Complete Bibliographical Data 85
6.3 Engaging Sources Actively 87
6.4 Using Secondary Sources to Find a Problem 88
6.5 Using Secondary Sources to Plan Your Argument 92
6.6 Recording What You Find 95
? Quick Tip: Manage Moments of Normal Anxiety 101
III MAKING A CLAIM AND SUPPORTING IT 103
PROLOGUE: ASSEMBLING A RESEARCH ARGUMENT 105
7 Making Good Arguments: An Overview 108
7.1 Argument as a Conversation with Readers 108
7.2 Supporting Your Claim 110
7.3 Acknowledging and Responding to Anticipated Questions and Objections 112
7.4 Warranting the Relevance of Your Reasons 114
7.5 Building a Complex Argument Out of Simple Ones 116
7.6 Creating an Ethos by Thickening Your Argument 117
? Quick Tip: A Common Mistake—Falling Back onWhat You Know 119
8 Making Claims 120
8.1 Determining the Kind of Claim You Should Make 120
8.2 Evaluating Your Claim 122
? Quick Tip: Qualifying Claims to Enhance Your Credibility 127
9 Assembling Reasons and Evidence 130
9.1 Using Reasons to Plan Your Argument 130
9.2 Distinguishing Evidence from Reasons 131
9.3 Distinguishing Evidence from Reports of It 133
9.4 Evaluating Your Evidence 135
10 Acknowledgments and Responses 139
10.1 Questioning Your Argument as Your Readers Will 140
10.2 Imagining Alternatives to Your Argument 142
10.3 Deciding What to Acknowledge 143
10.4 Framing Your Responses as Subordinate Arguments 145
10.5 The Vocabulary of Acknowledgment and Response 146
? Quick Tip: Three Predictable Disagreements 150
11 Warrants 152
11.1 Warrants in Everyday Reasoning 153
11.2 Warrants in Academic Arguments 154
11.3 Understanding the Logic of Warrants 155
11.4 Testing Whether a Warrant Is Reliable 156
11.5 Knowing When to State a Warrant 162
11.6 Challenging Others’ Warrants 164
? Quick Tip: Two Kinds of Arguments 169
IV PLANNING, DRAFTING, AND REVISING 171
PROLOGUE: PLANNING AGAIN 173
? Quick Tip: Outlining and Storyboarding 175
12 Planning 177
12.1 Avoid Three Common but Flawed Plans 177
12.2 Planning Your Report 179
13 Drafting Your Report 187
13.1 Draft in a Way That Feels Comfortable 187
13.2 Use Key Words to Keep Yourself on Track 188
13.3 Quote, Paraphrase, and Summarize Appropriately 188
13.4 Integrating Direct Quotations into Your Text 189
13.5 Show Readers How Evidence Is Relevant 190
13.6 Guard against Inadvertent Plagiarism 191
13.7 The Social Importance of Citing Sources 195
13.8 Four Common Citation Styles 197
13.9 Work through Procrastination and Writer’s Block 199
? Quick Tip: Indicating Citations in Your Text 200
14 Revising Your Organization and Argument 203
14.1 Thinking Like a Reader 204
14.2 Revising the Frame of Your Report 204
14.3 Revising Your Argument 206
14.4 Revising the Organization of Your Report 207
14.5 Check Your Paragraphs 209
14.6 Let Your Draft Cool, Then Paraphrase It 209
? Quick Tip: Abstracts 211
15 Communicating Evidence Visually 213
15.1 Choosing Visual or Verbal Representations 213
15.2 Choosing the Most Effective Graphic 214
15.3 Designing Tables, Charts, and Graphs 216
15.4 Specific Guidelines for Tables, Bar Charts, and Line Graphs 220
15.5 Communicating Data Ethically 226
16 Introductions and Conclusions 232
16.1 The Common Structure of Introductions 232
16.2 Step 1: Establish Common Ground 235
16.3 Step 2: State Your Problem 237
16.4 Step 3: State Your Response 241
16.5 Setting the Right Pace for Your Introduction 242
16.6 Writing Your Conclusion 244
16.7 Finding Your First Few Words 245
16.8 Finding Your Last Few Words 247
? Quick Tip: Titles 248
17 Revising Style: Telling Your Story Clearly 249
17.1 Judging Style 249
17.2 The First Two Principles of Clear Writing 251
17.3 A Third Principle: Old before New 260
17.4 Choosing between Active and Passive 262
17.5 A Final Principle: Complexity Last 264
17.6 Spit and Polish 267
? Quick Tip: The Quickest Revision Strategy 268
V SOME LAST CONSIDERATIONS 271
The Ethics of Research 273
A Postscript for Teachers 277
Appendix: Bibliographical Resources 283
Index 313
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