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Contents
List of Figures xv
Preface xvii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 What Is a Bank, and What Do Banks Do? 1
1.2 Liquidity and Payment Services 2
1.2.1 Money Changing 3
1.2.2 Payment Services 4
1.3 Transforming Assets 4
1.4 Managing Risks 5
1.4.1 Credit Risk 5
1.4.2 Interest Rate and Liquidity Risks 5
1.4.3 O¤-Balance-Sheet Operations 6
1.5 Monitoring and Information Processing 6
1.6 The Role of Banks in the Resource Allocation Process 7
1.7 Banking in the Arrow-Debreu Model 7
1.7.1 The Consumer 8
1.7.2 The Firm 9
1.7.3 The Bank 9
1.7.4 General Equilibrium 9
1.8 Outline of the Book 10
2 The Role of Financial Intermediaries 15
2.1 Transaction Costs 18
2.1.1 Economies of Scope 18
2.1.2 Economies of Scale 19
2.2 Coalitions of Depositors and Liquidity Insurance 20
2.2.1 The Model 20
2.2.2 Characteristics of the Optimal Allocation 21
2.2.3 Autarky 21
2.2.4 Market Economy 22
2.2.5 Financial Intermediation 23
2.3 Coalitions of Borrowers and the Cost of Capital 24
2.3.1 A Simple Model of Capital Markets with Adverse
Selection 25
2.3.2 Signaling through Self-Financing and the Cost of Capital 26
2.3.3 Coalitions of Borrowers 28
2.3.4 Suggestions for Further Reading 28
2.4 Financial Intermediation as Delegated Monitoring 30
2.5 The Choice between Market Debt and Bank Debt 34
2.5.1 A Simple Model of the Credit Market with Moral
Hazard 34
2.5.2 Monitoring and Reputation 36
2.5.3 Monitoring and Capital 39
2.5.4 Financial Architecture 42
2.5.5 Credit Risk and Dilution Costs 43
2.6 Liquidity Provision to Firms 46
2.7 Suggestions for Further Reading 47
2.8 Problems 49
2.8.1 Strategic Entrepreneurs and Market Financing 49
2.8.2 Market versus Bank Finance 50
2.8.3 Economies of Scale in Information Production 50
2.8.4 Monitoring as a Public Good and Gresham’s Law 51
2.8.5 Intermediation and Search Costs 52
2.8.6 Intertemporal Insurance 53
2.9 Solutions 54
2.9.1 Strategic Entrepreneurs and Market Financing 54
2.9.2 Market versus Bank Finance 55
2.9.3 Economies of Scale in Information Production 57
2.9.4 Monitoring as a Public Good and Gresham’s Law 58
2.9.5 Intermediation and Search Costs 60
2.9.6 Intertemporal Insurance 62
3 The Industrial Organization Approach to Banking 69
3.1 A Model of a Perfect Competitive Banking Sector 70
3.1.1 The Model 70
viii Contents
3.1.2 The Credit Multiplier Approach 71
3.1.3 The Behavior of Individual Banks in a Competitive
Banking Sector 72
3.1.4 The Competitive Equilibrium of the Banking Sector 75
3.2 The Monti-Klein Model of a Monopolistic Bank 78
3.2.1 The Original Model 78
3.2.2 The Oligopolistic Version 79
3.2.3 Empirical Evidence 80
3.3 Monopolistic Competition 81
3.3.1 Does Free Competition Lead to the Optimal Number of
Banks? 81
3.3.2 The Impact of Deposit Rate Regulation on Credit Rates 84
3.3.3 Bank Network Compatibility 87
3.3.4 Empirical Evidence 88
3.4 The Scope of the Banking Firm 88
3.5 Beyond Price Competition 89
3.5.1 Risk Taking on Investments 89
3.5.2 Monitoring and Incentives in a Financial Conglomerate 93
3.5.3 Competition and Screening 95
3.6 Relationship Banking 99
3.6.1 The Ex Post Monopoly of Information 99
3.6.2 Equilibrium with Screening and Relationship Banking 102
3.6.3 Does Competition Threaten Relationship Banking? 103
3.6.4 Intertemporal Insurance 104
3.6.5 Empirical Tests of Relationship Banking 104
3.7 Payment Cards and Two-Sided Markets 107
3.7.1 A Model of the Payment Card Industry 108
3.7.2 Card Use 109
3.7.3 Monopoly Network 110
3.7.4 Competing Payment Card Networks 111
3.7.5 Welfare Analysis 111
3.8 Problems 112
3.8.1 Extension of the Monti-Klein Model to the Case of
Risky Loans 112
3.8.2 Compatibility between Banking Networks 113
3.8.3 Double Bertrand Competition 113
3.8.4 Deposit Rate Regulation 114
Contents ix
3.9 Solutions 115
3.9.1 Extension of the Monti-Klein Model to the Case of
Risky Loans 115
3.9.2 Compatibility between Banking Networks 116
3.9.3 Double Bertrand Competition 117
3.9.4 Deposit Rate Regulation 118
4 The Lender-Borrower Relationship 127
4.1 Why Risk Sharing Does Not Explain All the Features of Bank
Loans 128
4.2 Costly State Verification 130
4.2.1 Incentive-Compatible Contracts 131
4.2.2 E‰cient Incentive-Compatible Contracts 132
4.2.3 E‰cient Falsification-Proof Contracts 133
4.3 Incentives to Repay 134
4.3.1 Nonpecuniary Cost of Bankruptcy 134
4.3.2 Threat of Termination 135
4.3.3 Impact of Judicial Enforcement 137
4.3.4 Strategic Debt Repayment: The Case of a Sovereign
Debtor 139
4.4 Moral Hazard 143
4.5 The Incomplete Contract Approach 146
4.5.1 Private Debtors and the Inalienability of Human Capital 147
4.5.2 Liquidity of Assets and Debt Capacity 149
4.5.3 Soft Budget Constraints and Financial Structure 150
4.6 Collateral as a Device for Screening Heterogeneous Borrowers 153
4.7 Problems 157
4.7.1 Optimal Risk Sharing with Symmetric Information 157
4.7.2 Optimal Debt Contracts with Moral Hazard 158
4.7.3 The Optimality of Stochastic Auditing Schemes 159
4.7.4 The Role of Hard Claims in Constraining Management 160
4.7.5 Collateral and Rationing 160
4.7.6 Securitization 161
4.8 Solutions 161
4.8.1 Optimal Risk Sharing with Symmetric Information 161
4.8.2 Optimal Debt Contracts with Moral Hazard 162
4.8.3 The Optimality of Stochastic Auditing Schemes 163
4.8.4 The Role of Hard Claims in Constraining Management 164
x Contents
4.8.5 Collateral and Rationing 164
4.8.6 Securitization 165
5 Equilibrium in the Credit Market and Its Macroeconomic Implications 171
5.1 Definition of Equilibrium Credit Rationing 172
5.2 The Backward-Bending Supply of Credit 173
5.3 Equilibrium Credit Rationing 175
5.3.1 Adverse Selection 175
5.3.2 Costly State Verification 177
5.3.3 Moral Hazard 178
5.4 Equilibrium with a Broader Class of Contracts 181
5.5 Problems 185
5.5.1 The Model of Mankiw 185
5.5.2 E‰cient Credit Rationing 185
5.5.3 Too Much Investment 186
5.6 Solutions 186
5.6.1 The Model of Mankiw 186
5.6.2 E‰cient Credit Rationing 187
5.6.3 Too Much Investment 188
6 The Macroeconomic Consequences of Financial Imperfections 193
6.1 A Short Historical Perspective 195
6.2 The Transmission Channels of Monetary Policy 196
6.2.1 The Di¤erent Channels 197
6.2.2 A Simple Model 198
6.2.3 Credit View versus Money View: Justification of the
Assumptions and Empirical Evidence 200
6.2.4 Empirical Evidence on the Credit View 202
6.3 Financial Fragility and Economic Performance 203
6.4 Financial Development and Economic Growth 209
7 Individual Bank Runs and Systemic Risk 217
7.1 Banking Deposits and Liquidity Insurance 218
7.1.1 A Model of Liquidity Insurance 218
7.1.2 Autarky 219
7.1.3 The Allocation Obtained When a Financial Market Is
Opened 219
7.1.4 The Optimal (Symmetric) Allocation 220
7.1.5 A Fractional Reserve Banking System 220
Contents xi
7.2 The Stability of the Fractional Reserve System and Alternative
Institutional Arrangements 222
7.2.1 The Causes of Instability 222
7.2.2 A First Remedy for Instability: Narrow Banking 222
7.2.3 Regulatory Responses: Suspension of Convertibility or
Deposit Insurance 224
7.2.4 Jacklin’s Proposal: Equity versus Deposits 225
7.3 Bank Runs and Renegotiation 227
7.3.1 A Simple Model 227
7.3.2 Pledgeable and Nonpledgeable Cash Flows 228
7.3.3 Bank Runs as a Discipline Device 228
7.3.4 The Role of Capital 229
7.4 E‰cient Bank Runs 230
7.5 Interbank Markets and the Management of Idiosyncratic
Liquidity Shocks 233
7.5.1 The Model of Bhattacharya and Gale 233
7.5.2 The Role of the Interbank Market 234
7.5.3 The Case of Unobservable Liquidity Shocks 234
7.6 Systemic Risk and Contagion 235
7.6.1 Aggregate Liquidity and Banking Crises 236
7.6.2 Payment Systems and OTC Operations 238
7.6.3 Contagion through Interbank Claims 239
7.7 Lender of Last Resort: A Historical Perspective 242
7.7.1 Views on the LLR Role 243
7.7.2 Liquidity and Solvency: A Coordination Game 244
7.7.3 The Practice of LLR Assistance 246
7.7.4 The E¤ect of LLR and Other Partial Arrangements 247
7.8 Problems 248
7.8.1 Bank Runs and Moral Hazard 248
7.8.2 Bank Runs 249
7.8.3 Information-Based Bank Runs 249
7.8.4 Banks’ Suspension of Convertibility 250
7.8.5 Aggregated Liquidity Shocks 251
7.8.6 Charter Value 252
7.9 Solutions 253
7.9.1 Banks Runs and Moral Hazard 253
7.9.2 Bank Runs 253
xii Contents
7.9.3 Information-Based Bank Runs 255
7.9.4 Banks’ Suspension of Convertibility 255
7.9.5 Aggregated Liquidity Shocks 257
7.9.6 Charter Value 258
8 Managing Risks in the Banking Firm 265
8.1 Credit Risk 266
8.1.1 Institutional Context 266
8.1.2 Evaluating the Cost of Credit Risk 267
8.1.3 Regulatory Response to Credit Risk 271
8.2 Liquidity Risk 273
8.2.1 Reserve Management 274
8.2.2 Introducing Liquidity Risk into the Monti-Klein Model 275
8.2.3 The Bank as a Market Maker 277
8.3 Interest Rate Risk 280
8.3.1 The Term Structure of Interest Rates 281
8.3.2 Measuring Interest Rate Risk Exposure 283
8.3.3 Applications to Asset Liability Management 284
8.4 Market Risk 286
8.4.1 Portfolio Theory: The Capital Asset Pricing Model 286
8.4.2 The Bank as a Portfolio Manager: The Pyle-Hart-Ja¤ee
Approach 288
8.4.3 An Application of the Portfolio Model: The Impact of
Capital Requirements 291
8.5 Problems 296
8.5.1 The Model of Prisman, Slovin, and Sushka 296
8.5.2 The Risk Structure of Interest Rates 297
8.5.3 Using the CAPM for Loan Pricing 298
8.6 Solutions 298
8.6.1 The Model of Prisman, Slovin, and Sushka 298
8.6.2 The Risk Structure of Interest Rates 300
8.6.3 Using the CAPM for Loan Pricing 301
9 The Regulation of Banks 305
9.1 The Justification for Banking Regulation 306
9.1.1 The General Setting 306
9.1.2 The Fragility of Banks 307
9.1.3 The Protection of Depositors’ and Customers’ Confidence 308
9.1.4 The Cost of Bank Failures 310
Contents xiii
9.2 A Framework for Regulatory Analysis 310
9.3 Deposit Insurance 313
9.3.1 The Moral Hazard Issue 313
9.3.2 Risk-Related Insurance Premiums 315
9.3.3 Is Fairly Priced Deposit Insurance Possible? 316
9.3.4 The E¤ects of Deposit Insurance on the Banking
Industry 318
9.4 Solvency Regulations 319
9.4.1 The Portfolio Approach 319
9.4.2 Cost of Bank Capital and Deposit Rate Regulation 320
9.4.3 The Incentive Approach 323
9.4.4 The Incomplete Contract Approach 324
9.4.5 The Three Pillars of Basel II 328
9.5 The Resolution of Bank Failures 329
9.5.1 Resolving Banks’ Distress: Instruments and Policies 329
9.5.2 Information Revelation and Managers’ Incentives 330
9.5.3 Who Should Decide on Banks’ Closure? 332
9.6 Market Discipline 335
9.6.1 Theoretical Framework 336
9.6.2 Empirical Evidence 337
9.7 Suggestions for Further Reading 338
9.8 Problem 340
9.8.1 Moral Hazard and Capital Regulation 340
9.9 Solution 340
9.9.1 Moral Hazard and Capital Regulation 340
Index 349
xiv Contents
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