非英语专业学生英语学习动机调查研究(1)_英语毕业论文-经管之家官网！

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[Abstract] Motivation has been considered a key factor to successful language learning. From different dimensions, motivation can be classified into integrative and instrumental, intrinsic and extrinsic, etc. The behavioral, humanistic, cognitive and social learning theories account for “what is motivation” from different perspectives. The subjects of this study are 55 third-year non-English majors of Class Two in Math Department of Zhangzhou Teachers’ College. Each of them was given a questionnaire. The paper, based on the previous findings, explores useful methods and strategies for teachers to enhance students’ motivation, such as, applying meta- cognitive strategies, using communicative method in their teaching, improving teaching methods, cultivating the students’ autonomous learning ability. It’s hoped that the present study will help to bring about great progress in making English teaching and learning more effective and efficient .
[Key Words] non-English majors; motivation; English teaching; English learning

[摘 要] 动机被看作是影响成功的语言学习的一个重要因素, 从不同的方面动机可分类为:融合性动机、工具型动机、内在动机和外在动机等等．行为主义、人文主义、认知理论和社会学习理论可以从不同的角度解释＂什么是动机＂. 这次调查的对象是漳州师范学院０３级数学系师本（２）班的５５位同学．每位同学都分到一张调查问卷．此论文根据先前的研究并结合当前的数据分析得出，英语教师可以采用一些强化策略，如在教学过程中充分运用元认知策略，采用英语交际教学法，改进教学手段，培养学生的自主学习能力，以更好地促进英语的教与学．
[关键词] 非英语专业学生; 动机; 英语教学; 英语学习

1. Introduction
There has been a great deal of research on the role of motivation in foreign language learning. “And researchers have found a high correlation between motivation and achievement.”[1] Motivation in foreign language learning is a complicated phenomenon which can be defined in terms of two factors : learners’ communicative needs and their attitudes towards the foreign language community. What’s more, the problem of low English proficiency and insufficient learning motivation generally exists among non-English majors.
“Motivation is regarded as one of the most important variables affecting the students’ performance of English, which is widely concerned by foreign language learners and teachers for a long time.”[2] The research of motivation is very important in foreign language teaching. Teachers can not effectively arouse students’ motivation and improve their teaching effects until they know what motivational factors influence students’ English achievement and understand students’ internal and external needs.

2. On motivation
Motivation has always been considered to be one of the most important factors in foreign language learning. But why are some students successful at language learning while others are not? Teachers often say that students who really want to learn will succeed whatever the circumstances suggests that the motivation that students bring to class is one important factor affecting their success.
2.1 Definition of motivation
“Motivation is a force that energizes, sustains, and directs behavior toward a goal,”[3] which is the dynamically cumulative arousal. Some psychologists perceive that motivation is some kind of internal drive which encourages someone to pursue a course of action, such as, the motivation of shopping, the motivation of hunting a job, etc. Concretely speaking, motivation is what moves us from boredom to interest. It is something like the engine and steering wheel of an automobile. It is the same for the motivation of learning English. Because motivation has a major influence on our behavior but they don’t really tell us how.
There are different views on the definition of motivation. Gardner defines motivation to learn the foreign language as “the extent to which the individual works or strives to learn the language because of a desire to do so and the satisfaction experienced in this activity”. Brown defines motivation as such: “motivation is commonly thought of as an inner drive, impulse, emotion, or desire that moves one to a particular action.” [4] According to Gardner, motivation consists of four aspects: a goal, effortful behavior, a desire to attain the goal and favorable attitudes towards the activity in question. There are many kinds of classification of motivation ,such as, the integrative and the instrumental, the intrinsic and the extrinsic, etc.
On the whole, researchers have found a strong, positive correlation between motivation and achievement. Motivation and achievement are directly related just because the effects of learners’ orientation are mediated by their motivation.
2.2 Types of motivation
2.2.1 Integrative and instrumental motivation
People who take possession of the integrative motivation are those who learn the second language in order to identify themselves with the second language community and ultimately join it. They not only want to learn the language, but also the native culture and living styles, etc. People may choose to learn English because they are interested in the people and culture represented by the second speaking group.
However, instrumental motivation refers to language learning for more immediate or practical goals. It is also called “task-oriented motivation” or “certificate motivation”. Learners may make efforts to learn a second language for some functions reasons- to pass an exam, to get a better job, or to get a place at university. They are motivated to learn a second language because it opens up educational and economic opportunities for them. “Learners who prefer to instrumental motivation can be identified as the following three types: a) EOP learners. They learn English because of their jobs, eg, the waiters learn hotel English to serve the guests, etc. b) EAP learners. They learn English in order to go abroad and get further education. c) EST learners. They learn English so hard that they can comprehend literature of science and technology.”[5] Above all, instrumental motivation is generally characterized by the desire to obtain something practical or concrete from the study of a second language. An instrumental motivation seems to be the major force determining success in the second language learning.
While both integrative and instrumental motivation are essential elements of success, it is integrative motivation which has been found to maintain long-term success when learning a second language. But nowadays the importance of instrumental motivation is also stressed especially for Chinese. It is remarked that “integrative and instrumental motivation are not necessarily mutually exclusive”, whereas integrative motivation is continually linked to successful second language acquisition.
In conclusion, integrative motivation has been shown to be strongly related to second language achievement. It serves as a powerful factor of success combining with instrumental motivation. Teachers should be able to identify both the types and the combination of motivation that assist in the successful acquisition of a second language.
2.2.2 Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
“Intrinsic motivation is the motivation to be involved in an activity for its own sake.”[6] Intrinsic motivation is also called self-motivation. Because the feeling of competence and self-determination are significant factors of intrinsic motivation. Intrinsically motivated learners study because they want to understand the content and they view learning as worthwhile in itself. If a person performs behavior for its own
sake rather than for rewards or outcomes the behavior might produce, then this person is intrinsically motivated. People are intrinsically motivated not because accomplishing the activity they do brings a reward, but because doing the activity itself is a reward.
In contrast to intrinsic motivation is the type of motivation referred to as extrinsic motivation. “Extrinsic motivation is characterized as the motivation to engage in an activity as a means to an end.”[7] Extrinsically motivated learners may study hard for a test because they believe studying will lead to high test scores, teacher compliments or some other end. Extrinsic rewards is encouraged by outside force, which comes from the desire to get a reward or avoid punishment and it focuses on something external to the learning activity itself. “Although we tend to think of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation as two ends of a continuum (meaning the higher the extrinsic motivation, the lower the intrinsic motivation and vice versa), they are actually on separate continua.”[8] Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation also vary with the situation, and can change over time. Research shows that intrinsically motivated students achieve higher than those who are only extrinsically motivated. “Moslow claims that intrinsic motivation is clearly superior to extrinsic motivation.”[9] Ideally, students will be intrinsically motivated. Teachers are important in promoting intrinsic motivation and need to take effective measures to sustain students intrinsic motivation.
2.2.3 Indirect long-range motivation and direct short-range motivation
Indirect long-range motivation bears no direct relationship with learning activities. It emphasizes results and value of learning activities, relating with social significance of foreign language learning, such as, in the view of some middle-school students, learning foreign language is to be engaged in careers concerning with foreign language. The motivation reflects the requirements of society and households, concerning with foreign language learners’ understanding upon the significance of foreign language learning, great aspiration and their world view. It holds great influence upon the consciousness and initiative, bearing relationship with results of long-term activities, stable and reliable, being efficient in a longer time.
Direct short-range motivation bears direct relationship with learning activities, mainly evoked by learning activity itself directly, chiefly manifesting the direct interest upon foreign language discipline contents or learning activities. It is probably evoked by pressure , reward and punishment from teachers and parents, or by competition between classmates. The motivation is mainly evoked by demanding from curiosity and recognition, the effective range smaller than that of indirect long-range motivation, such as, due to the interest upon foreign language, some students like foreign language class rather than others, what motivation more concrete, intense and effective. During the period in university, the motivation appears more prominent, which brings about great influence on foreign language learners all the time as soon as it comes into being.
The division between these two motivations is mainly determined by motivation
sources and effective term. The motivations are mutually related and complementary. “In the view of Mr. Chen Guangsheng, owing to the affection of some occasional condition in actual concrete situations, direct short-range motivation needs indirect short-range motivation working as supplement and complement to improve the initiative and significance of learning activities.”[10] Indirect long-range motivation needs a longer term, therefore, it requires direct short-range motivation working as supplement and complement to work out a better integration between the encouragement of long-range goal and present specific learning activities.
2.2.4 Achievement motivation
“Achievement motivation, namely, resultative motivation, means that motivation is the result of learning rather than the cause of L2 achievement. Learners who experience success in learning may become more, or in some contexts, less motivated to learn.”[11] Achievement motivation is regarded one of the main motivation of learning English in classes. Teachers play an important role in promoting students’ achievement motivation by meeting with their curiosity or approving their achievement, etc.

3.Theories of motivation
There are three theories views of motivation as such: behavioral, humanistic, and cognitive theories of motivation. These theories can also help to understand motivation.
3.1 Behavioral views of motivation
“Behavioral theories view motivation as a change in behavior as a result of experience with the environment.”[12] Here motivation is regarded as reinforcement. Because reinforcement results in an increase in behavior, praise, comments on homework, high test scores, and good grades are common classroom reinforcers that can cause this increase. Effective reinforcers of using rewards in classroom may cultivate intrinsic interest in learning or not. Although motivation and learning are closely related, they are not identical. Because the effects of reinforcers depend on learners’ expectations, beliefs, and other thoughts. To sum up, behaviorism focuses on changes in behavior that result from experiences with the environment. The teachers, who praise students appropriately for accomplishments, can fully promote the students motivation.
3.2 Humanistic views of motivation
“Humanistic theories view motivation as people’s attempts to fulfill their total potential as human beings,”[13] whereas behaviorism focuses on reinforcement in its explanation for motivation. According to humanistic psychologists, two elements of the teaching-learning process are essential to the development of motivation: a strong student-teacher relationship and a positive classroom climate. Collectively, humanistic theories suggest that an accepting and supportive classroom environment where each student is valued regardless of academic ability or performance is important for both learning and motivation. Teachers who apply humanistic approaches to motivation in classroom by displaying a caring and empathetic manner with students and creating a
supportive classroom climate for learners can fully motivate their students.
3.3 Cognitive theories of motivation
Cognitive theories of motivation focus on learners’ belief, expectations and needs for order, predictability, and understanding. This paper mainly examines five cognitive theories of motivation: expectancy × value theory, self-efficacy theory, goal theory, attribution theory and self-determination theory.
3.3.1 Expectancy × value theory
“Expectancy × value theories suggest that learners are motivated to work on a task to the extent that they expect to succeed on the task times value task achievement or other potential outcomes.”[14] Expectancy for success is important in classrooms. Learners with high success expectations persist longer on tasks, choose more challenging activities, and achieve higher than those whose expectations are lower. In contrast, task value is influenced by four factors: intrinsic interest, importance, utility value and cost. a) Intrinsic interest is the characteristics of a topic or activity that induce a person’s willing involvement in it. Students’ interest is increased if the class is filled with logical and coherent presentations, concrete examples, personalized content and student involvement. b) Importance is the extent to which a topic or activity allows a person to confirm or disconfirm important aspects of his or her self-schemas. c) Utility value refers to the perception of a topic or activity as useful for meeting future goals, including career goals. Utility value can effectively help us see how extrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation , and motivation to learn interact and support one another. d) Cost is the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task, such as, time, emotional cost, etc.
3.3.2 Self-efficacy theory
“Self-efficacy is a belief about one’s own capability to organize and complete a course of action required to accomplish a specific type of task.”[15] There are four factors that influence people’s beliefs about their capability of succeeding on specific tasks as such: past performance, modeling, verbal persuasion, psychological state. Past performance on similar tasks is the most important. High efficacy learners accept more challenging tasks, exert more effort, persist longer, use more effective strategies, and generally perform better. It’s an important goal for all teachers to promote high efficacy in students.
3.3.3 Goal theory
“Goals can also have a powerful influence on motivation. It equals to an outcome an individual hopes to achieve.”[16] Learning and performance goals are two main goals. Learning goals are highly desirable, whereas the influence of performance goals on motivation is more complex. It is characterized by five kinds of goals: learning goals, performance-approach goals, performance-avoidance goals, social goals and work-avoidance goals. Using goals effectively involve four processes as follows: effective goal setting, goal monitoring, strategy use and metacognition. Learners can be highly motivated if they efficiently apply the goal theory.
3.3.4 Attribution theory
Attribution theory is a cognitive theory of motivation that attempts to systematically describe learners’ explanation for their successes and failures. Attributions occur on three dimensions: locus, stability and control. Attributions influence learners in at least four ways: emotional reactions to success and failure, expectations for future success, future effort and achievement. This theory suggests that teachers can have important influences on the ways students interpret their performance by teaching them learning strategies and encouraging them to attribute success to effort.
3.3.5 Self-determination theory
Self-determination is the process of deciding how to act on one’s environments. Self-determination theory assumes that people have three innate psychological needs: competence , control or autonomy, and relatedness. Self-determination theory is one of the most comprehensive cognitive motivation theories. It examines both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation and describes a continuum of increasing self-determination that begins with extrinsic motivation and ends in intrinsic motivation. Many variables of self-determination theory are really sources of intrinsic motivation.
To summarize, applying cognitive approaches to motivation in classroom is so important that teachers should pay great attention to it. Teachers can fully inspire their students if they explain the reasons for dealing with the topics being studied, provide clear and prompt feedback on assignments and tests, establish clear expectations for their students, etc. It’s an important aim for all teachers.

4.A case study based on questionnaire
4.1 Literature of review
Many Europeans, ie, Gardner, Brown, have proceeded a quite high level of motivation research. They consider instrumental motivations are less important factors in predicting learning success, whereas it is quite contrary that instrumental motivations are the commonest among the college non-English majors.
It’s obvious that numerous studies have been conducted before 2004. But 2005 is a significant year for English learning and teaching. In 2005, CET4/6 won’t link with the academic degree anymore. This study focuses on expounding the transformation of motivation after 2005. How does the motivation change? Are instrumental and extrinsic motivations still taking superior position after 2005’ reform?

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