曼昆经济学原理阅读笔记（九）

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<BR>接上一章供给、需求与国家经济政策的案例研究：谁负担了奢侈品税？如果我没记错，前阵子在搜狐看到新闻说，中国也要（或者已经开征？）对汽车，别墅等奢侈品征消费税。对奢侈品征税，目标看起来是指向了富人的口袋，是个劫富济贫的手段。真如此吗？看曼昆的案例：In 1990, Congress adopted a new luxury tax on items such as yachts, private airplanes, furs, jewelry, and expensive cars. The goal of the tax was to raise revenue from those who could most easily afford to pay. Because only the rich could afford to buy such extravagances, taxing luxuries seemed a logical way of taxing the rich.Yet, when the forces of supply and demand took over, the outcome was quite different from what Congress intended. Consider, for example, the market for yachts. The demand for yachts is quite elastic. A millionaire can easily not buy a yacht; she can use the money to buy a bigger house, take a European vacation, or leave a larger bequest to her heirs. By contrast, the supply of yachts is relatively inelastic, at least in the short run. Yacht factories are not easily converted to alternative uses, and workers who build yachts are not eager to change careers in response to changing market conditions.Our analysis makes a clear prediction in this case. With elastic demand and inelastic supply, the burden of a tax falls largely on the suppliers. That is, a tax on yachts places a burden largely on the firms and workers who build yachts because they end up getting a lower price for their product. The workers, however, are not wealthy. Thus, the burden of a luxury tax falls more on the middle class than on the rich.我们看到，富人是存在的，且越来越多越来越富，富人对奢侈品的需求必然形成市场。有购买者就必须有生产者销售者。那么对奢侈品征税，如果向消费者征税，那么必然造成需求的下降。需求下降，则供过于求，从而价格下降，市场总收入下降，这样，对奢侈品所征的税有一部分就落在了生产者和销售者一方。奢侈品的生产者在市场萎缩时很难转向其他生产，在此情况下他只能降低工资或者解雇员工，来继续保持他的利益。对富人来说，他可以选择不买，他具有更大的弹性。那么受害者是谁呢？是中产阶级和低收入的工人。<BR>由此我们可以思考另一个问题：如果国家以减轻民众负担为目标，而减少或取消对生活必需品的征税，增加非必需品的征税，是否合理？我记得斯密在他的《国民财富的性质及原因的研究》里就讨论过这个问题。<BR>Consumers, Producers, and The Efficiency of Markets（消费者，生产者与市场效率）<BR>这一章讨论福利经济学（Welfare Economics），即研究资源的分配如何影响经济的健康运行。步骤：首先研究购买者和销售者从参与市场的活动中获得的利益；然后研究社会如何使这些利益最大化。整个的分析基于此前已经得到的结论：市场中供给和需求的平衡将使购买者和销售者的总利益最大化。<BR>Welfare Economics: the study of how the allocation of resources affects economic well-being.willingness to pay: the maximum amount that a buyer will pay for a good.consumer surplus（消费者盈余）: a buyer’s willingness to pay minus the amount the buyer actually pays.消费者的消费者盈余可以衡量消费者参与市场所获得利益。如果消费者对商品价格的心理预期（即他认为该商品的最高价值）是 100 元，那么在任何低于该价格的价位买到该商品，都可获得消费者盈余。价格越低，则此盈余越多，消费者从中获得的利益越多。因此，在正常的市场中，消费者盈余的确反映了经济的运行状况。曼昆的需求曲线很好的说明了这个问题。<BR>Producer Surplus（生产者盈余）：the amount a seller is paid for a good minus the seller’s cost.cost: the value of everything a seller must give up to produce a good.商品的价格高于其成本，是销售者卖出货物的根本动力。价格高于商品成本越多，则销售者从中获得的利益越多。由于消费者盈余和生产者盈余是相对的两个方向，且二者密切相关，所以降两者结合起来，是研究经济运行状况的好办法。<BR>Market Efficiencyefficiency: the property of a resource allocation of maximizing the total surplus received by all members of society.equity: the fairness of the distribution of well-being among the members of society.<BR>Total surplus = Value to buyers - Amount paid by buyers + Amount received by sellers - Cost to sellers = Value to buyers - Cost to sellers<BR>在只考虑效率的情况下，总盈余越大，则表示资源分配的效率越大。而考虑公平的话，情况要复杂得多。曼昆的举例：在市场中人们从贸易上获得的利益如同一个蛋糕，需要分配给市场的各个参与者。提高效率就是如何把蛋糕做大，提高公平就是如何把蛋糕分得更合理。<BR>EVALUATING THE MARKET EQUILIBRIUM（评估市场均衡）1. Free markets allocate the supply of goods to the buyers who value them most highly, as measured by their willingness to pay.2. Free markets allocate the demand for goods to the sellers who can produce them at least cost.Thus, given the quantity produced and sold in a market equilibrium, the social planner cannot increase economic well-being by changing the allocation of consumption among buyers or the allocation of production among sellers.But can the social planner raise total economic well-being by increasing or decreasing the quantity of the good? The answer is no, as stated in this third insight about market outcomes:3. Free markets produce the quantity of goods that maximizes the sum of consumer and producer surplus.所以曼昆的结论，当然是在自由市场中，是：The job of the benevolent social planner is, therefore, very easy: He can leave the market outcome just as he finds it. This policy of leaving well enough alone goes by the French expression laissez-faire, which literally translated means “allow them to do”.所以说应该把增加市场总产出的职责交给斯密的那只“看不见的手”。<BR>在这章中曼昆的两个重要假设，这是本章讨论的立足点：First, our analysis assumed that markets are perfectly competitive. In the world, however, competition is sometimes far from perfect.In some markets, a single buyer or seller (or a small group of them) may be able to control market prices.This ability to influence prices is called market power. Market power can cause markets to be inefficient because it keeps the price and quantity away from the equilibrium of supply and demand.<BR>Second, our analysis assumed that the outcome in a market matters only to the buyers and sellers in that market. Yet, in the world, the decisions of buyers and sellers sometimes affect people who are not participants in the market at all. Pollution is the classic example of a market outcome that affects people not in the market. Such side effects, called externalities, cause welfare in a market to depend on more than just the value to the buyers and the cost to the sellers. Because buyers and sellers do not take these side effects into account when deciding how much to consume and produce, the equilibrium in a market can be inefficient from the standpoint of society as a whole.<BR>在多数情况下，那只“看不见的手”是工作得很好的。

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