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一道论述题： （就是一篇完整的essay）

Ethical Decision Making

Introduction

Ethics is the set of moral principles or values that defines right and wrong for a person or group. Ethical behaviour follows accepted principles of right or wrong. What becomes an ethical guideline today often becomes a law, regulation or rule tomorrow. The concept of business ethics has come to mean doing what's right in regard to the stakeholders, customers, employees, shareholders and suppliers, of the business. This essay will analyse the factors involved in ethical decision making and discuss the steps that managers can take to ensure ethical decision making. Reference will be made to a case study……….. throughout the essay.

Influences on Ethical Decision Making

Ethical intensity

  - degree of concern about an ethical issue

  - focuses managers awareness on the impact their decisions will have on other people

  - managers are more likely to view decisions as an ethical or moral decision rather than an economic decision

  - managers will be concerned about making the wrong decision

Ethical intensity depends on six(6) factors:

1.Social consensus -  agreement whether behaviour is good or bad

       e.g. Selling cigarettes that harm peoples health is bad

2.    Probability of effect – chance that something will happen and harm

       people e.g. continued sale of cigarettes will lead to more deaths from cancer

3.   Magnitude of consequences - the total harm or benefit. The more people harmed or the greater the harm to people the larger the consequences e.g. many people will die from cancer

4.Temporal immediacy – time between act and the result of the act  e.g. sale of cigarettes and  the onset of cancer in the future

5. Proximity of effect – social, psychological, cultural or physical distance of decision maker from people affected by the decision e.g. cigarette company and the social, psychological, cultural or physical, distance  from customers around the world

6.  Concentration of effect – how much the act affects the average person e.g. destroys relationships, causes suffering, smokers die early

Principles of Ethical Decision Making

Management should  follow these principles: Johnson and Johnson case study- ‘Local Insights Inspire New Products’

1.Long-term self interest - act in the long term self-interest of the business e.g. develop medical devices and pharmaceutical and consumer products based on insights available in local markets.

● 2.Tell the truth – to build stakeholders trust e.g. explain the strategy to help the community to buy and use the company’s products.

● 3.Stick to the golden rule – treat people fairly, as managers would want the business to be treated if it were a person e.g. high-quality, cheap products providing good treatment for patients who otherwise do not have access to the technology ●

4.Obey the law – both the actual law and the principle of the law e.g. healthcare reforms in China and India allow the company to set up research facilities

5.Do not harm others – do what creates the greatest good for the greatest number e.g. Patients who can now receive better health care at lower cost are very grateful ● 6.Practise participation not paternalism - finding stakeholders' needs, rather than deciding what is best for them e.g. ‘Emerging Market Innovation Centre that opened in Shanghai in 2007 will have close contact with consumers to develop new products. ●

7.     Show respect for other people - respect for individuals is necessary to valuing differences in culture e.g. focused on making new technologies and better health care accessible to lower-income patients

8.     Always act when you have responsibility - act when they have capacity or resources to help communities e.g. research and create new cures for infectious diseases and contribute positively to public health goals in China

Practical steps to ethical decision making

Select and hire ethical employees

          If you found a wallet containing $50, would you return it with the money?

•Overt integrity tests

        - directly asking job applicants what they think or feel about theft or about punishment

           of unethical behaviours.

         - ‘Would you buy a product from somebody you knew had stolen the item?’

         -  ‘Don’t most people steal from their companies?’ Unethical people will usually answer

             yes to such questions because they believe that the world is basically dishonest and

            that dishonest behaviour  is normal.

•Personality-based integrity tests

            - Estimate employee honesty by measuring psychological traits such as dependability and

              conscientiousness e.g. prison inmates serving time for white-collar crimes (stealing and fraud)

              scored much lower than a comparison group of middle-level managers on tests measuring reliability,

              dependability, honesty, and being conscientious and rule-abiding.  These results show that

              companies can selectively hire and promote people who will be more ethical.

Establish a code of ethics

•Communicate code of ethics both inside and outside the company. Placed on the company website for employees and stakeholders

Develop ethical standards and procedures specific to business.

     - specific ethics codes, ranging from bribes and kickbacks to expense

        vouchers.

       Make it easy for employees to decide what they should do when they want to do the ‘right thing’.

Ethics training

•Develops employee awareness of ethics.
- helping employees recognise what issues are ethical issues, and then avoid the rationalisation of unethical behaviour, such as ‘this isn’t really illegal or immoral’ or ‘no one will ever find out’. •Achieves credibility with employees.

      - employees can be highly suspicious of management’s reasons for offering ethics training.

•Teaches a practical model of ethical decision making.

      - A basic model should help them think about the consequences their choices will have on others and consider how they will choose between different solutions.

A basic model of ethical decision making

1.Identify the problem. What makes it an ethical problem? Think in terms of rights, obligations, fairness, relationships and integrity. How would you define the problem if you stood on the other side of the fence?

2. Identify the constituents. Who has been hurt? Who could be hurt? Who could be helped? Are they willing players, or are they victims? Can you negotiate with them?

3. Diagnose the situation. How did it happen in the first place? What could have prevented it? Is it going to get worse or better? Can the damage now be undone?

4. Analyze your options. Imagine the range of possibilities. Limit yourself to the two or three most manageable. What are the likely outcomes of each? What are the likely costs? Look to the company mission statement or code

of ethics for guidance.

5. Make your choice. What is your intention in making this decision? How does it compare with the probable results? Can you discuss the problem with the affected parties before you act? Could you disclose without qualm your decision to your boss, the CEO, the board of directors, your family or society as a whole?

6. Act. Do what you have to do. Don't be afraid to admit errors. Be as bold in confronting a problem as you were in causing it.

Practical steps to ethical  decision making

Management can encourage ethical decision making by: Johnson and Johnson case study- ‘Local Insights Inspire New Products’

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关键词：ABC 论述题 Stakeholders Consequences relationship principles customers employees suppliers business

1.Selecting and hiring ethical employees – employees screened to ensure the best researchers and medical experts work in China to develop drugs and medical devices for poor people ●

2.Establishing a code of ethics with guidelines - ‘Johnson and Johnson’ values honesty, integrity, quality and trust ●

3.Training  employees to make ethical decisions – develop awareness of ethics; employees must take ethics training seriously; train for practical decision-making e.g. finding cheap local solutions that do not create debt problems for the poor

4.     Creating and ethical climate – ‘Johnson & Johnson’ is focused on making new technologies and better health care accessible to lower-income patients

Creating an Ethical climate

•The first step in establishing an ethical climate is for managers, especially top managers, to act ethically themselves. Managers who decline to accept lavish gifts from company suppliers; who only use the company phone, fax and copier for business and not personal use; or who keep their promises to employees, suppliers and customers encourage others to believe that ethical behaviour is normal and acceptable. • •A second step in establishing an ethical climate is for top management to be active in the company ethics program. • •A third step is to put in place a reporting system that encourages managers and employees to report potential ethics violations.  Whistleblowing, reporting others’ ethics violations, is a difficult step for most people to take. Potential whistleblowers often fear that they will be punished rather than the ethics violators.The final step in developing an ethical climate is for management to fairly and consistently punish those who break the company’s code of ethics.

Conclusion

Ethical decision making is important in businesses not only to safeguard the interests of stakeholders but also makes good business sense. Both ethical intensity and ethical principles were used by the management of ‘Johnson and Johnson’ to set up research facilities in China to assist in the health care of rural communities. They selected staff and trained them to engage in ethical behaviour when they engaged with local people. The company has been successful in their endeavours as a result both financially and ethically.